Social Transformation with Imperial Cholas
The issue with trying to pick up a Historical Narrative from the Sangam and Pre-Sangam era is less to do with the Scarcity of the source than the credibility of the information. Hagiography, Poetic Reading and Epigraphy from the Royal Inscriptions pepper the landscape of time and how a narration is pieced from these, separates a historian from a common bard.
So someone who needs to trace a thread from such a past has to tread very carefully. The secondary Sources one quotes have to be stellar and non contentious. In this I would say Kanakalatha Mukund has walked a tightrope trying to paint the picture of the inception of the Tamil trading community. In doing so, whether she succeeded in that effort is a question that gets answered when we read the book.
“The use of literary sources is fraught with many pitfalls. To begin with, there is no chronological sequence or continuity in the sources. In using these sources we also have to make a judgement call on whether the poet was describing the reality of what he experienced or whether he was painting an idealized picture of the real world or whether the works pertained to any basic reality at all. Subject to these caveats, it can be said that the descriptions of ports, cities, trade and merchants in the Pattupattu, The Ten Songs, of the Sangam period, and the two epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai of a somewhat later period have a vitality and vividness which lend themselves to historical analysis. Archaeological finds, especially of Roman coins and artefacts in many ports and inland areas of Tamilakam, support the information contained in the literary sources about the extent of trade with the Mediterranean region in the ancient period. The limited number of scattered inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi script is also useful as corroborative material. The source materials for this period are further enriched by the accounts of contemporary geographers of Rome and Alexandria like Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy, in addition to Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, the first-hand anonymous account written in 75 CE.”
While talking about general economics based on the commerce that existed during those days and how it evolved over the time, Kanakalatha clearly debunks the motivated distortion of history that keeps saying that the Indian Subcontinent had the highest GDP that was lost due to foreign invasion. While it was a fact that India, and specifically the Southern part of the Subcontinent along the coast generated wealth due to its geographical advantage and the ability to Market the Spices much sought by rest of the world, the narrative that the invitations dried up these sources is clearly a distortion.
“Pliny the Elder, in 77 CE, called India ‘the sink of the world’s precious metal’ in his encyclopaedic work on classical Rome, Naturalis Historia, in which he describes his voyage from Alexandria across the Indian Ocean to the famed port of Muziris, near Cochin in south India.”
“Bernier’s compatriot Baron de Montesquieu pretty much summed up the situation in 1748: ‘Every nation, that ever traded with the Indies, has constantly carried bullion, and brought merchandises in return … They want, therefore, nothing but our bullion.’ This pattern continued till the nineteenth century when the flow reversed suddenly. The conquest of India by the East India Company may have been a factor but the main reason for the reversal was the Industrial Revolution in Britain.”
The fact the advancement in Science and subsequent advent of Industrial revolution which all happened in the Mainland Europe and enabled the Europeans to take advantage over those nations in the far east which were not yet ready for the industrial revolution, is a Social Phenomena rarely mentioned. The fact that this would have happened anyway, even if the East India Company and British Invasions had not taken place. It was the Industrial revolution that enabled the supremacy of the Europeans over the native powers in the east and Far East.
Another false narrative grew out of the initial naval Might of the Powers in the Subcontinent was that the Tamils were deliberately scuttled and their Sailor class were culled to give unfair advantage to the European powers. This is also misplaced. The fact that the Powers from the West, with the Industrial Might could build larger and stronger ships than what traditionally used by the Sailors in Thamizhakam and so could take natural advantage in the Sea is rarely mentioned. However, This book points us in the right direction by bringing this fact out.
Nevertheless, from the Sangam time, the book, carefully pointing to Epigraphic evidences from Findings of Eminent, Archeologists like I. Mahadevan and Noboru Karashima, establishes many interesting facts regarding the Trade inside Thamizhakam far from the costal reaches.
“Roman ships did not sail beyond Cape Comorin until the early decades of the first century CE. Pliny’s account which depended on earlier authors for information on India mentioned no ports beyond the west coast.28 During this period Roman traders travelled overland from the west coast through the Palghat pass to market centres in the east via Coimbatore, Erode and Karur. These districts were on the main trade routes linking the east coast with the west and served as major market centres. Besides, pepper and cardamom, the major exports, were grown in the western region. Beryl, a highly prized gem stone much in demand in Rome, came from mines in Kodumanal and Padiyur in Erode and Vaniyampadi near Salem. Excavations have also established that Chennimalai in Erode was a major centre for the production of iron and steel which were probably exported to Rome.29 Remnants of furnaces and slag have been found in Chennimalai and Karur. All this explains why the finds of earlier Roman coins are concentrated in the districts of Coimbatore, Erode, Salem and Karur.”
“A recently discovered papyrus, now in the Vienna Museum, dating to the second century CE, has a contract written in Greek between a merchant of Musiri and a merchant of Alexandria with respect to a shipment from Musiri. One side records a business loan drawn up in Musiri. The other side, written in Alexandria, lists the imports from Musiri—spikenard, ivory and bales of cloth. ‘The business contract … covers the period of shipment from Muziris until the arrival of the cargo at Alexandria and mentions the specific type of merchandise, the quantity and value as well as the 25 per cent tax rate levied by Roman customs officials.’35 The cargo amounted to 700 to 1700 pounds of spikenard, 4700 pounds of ivory items, and 790 pounds of varieties of textiles. The total value of this cargo was equal to the price of 2400 acres of land in Egypt.36 The document clearly shows that individual merchant exporters operated on a large scale even in the ancient period. We can also see that trade in the ancient period was conducted over very long distances, either overland or by sea. Spikenard was also known as Gangetic nard, signifying that it came from the north of India, and yet it was being exported from a port on the south-west coast, situated diagonally across the country. Importantly, it gives an insight into the modalities of business arrangements in the ancient period.”
It also points to the fact that due to these trading patterns, the society during those times was pluralistic.
“These trading ports, Arikamedu, Alagankulam and Puhar, as well as the inland capital Madurai, had settled Roman colonies.”
While going behind the Social order and its evolution that facilitated Trader guilds, there are two Vital phenomena that are being described here.
Cholas and the Social Order:
The Later Cholas known as Imperial Cholas brought in sweeping changes that define the Watershed moment in History of Thamizhakam.
During the Early Sangam Period and During Initial Chola period, the Social Structure remained pretty stable. The Society had the Administrative powers more or less in a federated way. Each town or village was managed by Representative Assemblies in the form of Sabhai, Ur, or Nagaram based on the Size of the Settlement. While Nagarams managed the larger towns also identified as Nagaram,the smaller towns and Villages had Assembles in the name of Ur or Sabhai. These managed everything from Local Governance to collection of Tax in all these Settlements. The Role of the King was to offer Protection to the Country which is a collection of these Settlements. For this function, a portion of the Tax collected got Remitted to the Treasury of the Kings.
The Bhakthi Movement after the Kalabras rule was a turning point. The pallavas who came after the Kalabras, started changes in this long standing social order. They built Temples with Masonry structures and introduced Land Grants to Brahmins in the name of Brahmadeyam, which was outside the structure of these Federated Administrative units and answered directly to the King.
Later Cholas who superseded the Pallavas adopted what Pallavas started and evolved that into a larger model. There were whole Villages that were given to Brahmins in the name of Chatuvedi Managalams. These also had huge tracts of land that would only be owned by Brahmins outside the control of the Federated Assembles and answered directly to the Kings. The right to collect tax and selection of who can cultivate on these was decided by the Brahmins. They got to select Tenants for these Lands. Most of these lands were exempted from Tax. Also they could Transact with Sabhai, Ur or Nagaram Assembles as if like another Representative Federated Assemblies. This Undermined the power of the representative Assemblies with an Entitlement model. By this process and by a factor explained next, kings now transformed from just being protectors, to a truly imperial authority!
“At the ideological level, the grants of land to Brahmins also lent greater legitimacy to the kings because of the social value placed on Brahmins and Brahminical ideology. Several historians have also pointed out that the creation of the brahmadeya village served an additional political purpose. These villages were first established under the Pallavas when they were creating a powerful empire in Tamilakam, the pace of development increasing under the Cholas who had the largest empire in Tamil history. Thus, the creation of a new category of villages which owed its existence to the king served to dilute the autonomy and authority of the older nadu and ur assemblies, which was of advantage to the growing power of the kings. With this intervention, the ur became the non-Brahmin village, while the brahmadeya was inhabited primarily by Brahmins”
“By and large, private ownership was more common in the brahmadeyas and communal ownership vested in the ur, though as the Chola state weakened, the incidence of private ownership increased in the urs also.”
Temples and their powers:
During the time of Early Cholas the Temples were for Spiritual needs of the people and were simple affairs carved out of Rocks and Caves managed by the Communities that those served. However, Pallavas started the Phenomena of Building Temples with Masonry served by Brahmins and to Justify their Upkeep, granted Brahma Desam Land grants to Brahmins. Enter Later Cholas, who, in true imperial fashion, expanded the Temples into Massive Structures built of Stone. There were regular service people dedicated to Temple ranging from those who are retained for the general Upkeep of the Premise, Singers, Dancers to huge Brahmin entourage. In addition it was managed by dedicated administrative body which had the prominent imperial official and other prominent people from the community. The Justification of Chaturvedhi Mangalams came from the need for the Upkeep of Brahmin Community to Propagate and maintain such large Structures. In addition Temples were allowed to hold large tract of Lands purportedly to maintain their function which was managed by the administrative body of the temple. Temples were allowed to transact with Nagarams and Ur. In effect temples were transformed into a seemingly corporate entity with economic might and influence that came with it. They existed in Parallel to exiting Administrative structure, answerable only to the emperor. It is no coincidence that wherever Cholas went they built large temples.
“THE TEMPLE EMERGED as the central, definitive institution in south India after the sixth century.”
“During this period the temple underwent a metamorphosis from a mono-functional religious institution which catered to the spiritual needs of the people to an institution of multiple and complex functions. Temples were mostly constructed by kings and other members of the royal family.”
“On lands given as devadana, gifted to God, temples were landholders and had superior rights to the produce of the land from the tenant cultivators, but could not change the tenancy arrangements at will. Some lands were gifted as iraiyili, tax-free; on some lands the kings assigned the taxes due to the state to the temple. But in many cases, the taxes on the donated lands were paid to the state by the donors themselves, so that there was little diminution of state revenue.”
With these changes, merchants and merchants guilds started prospering . Many of them now had access wider source of funds other than the traditional sources of Ur and Nagaram assemblies.
“It is evident that individual donors as well as the temple authorities preferred to give the donation to corporate groups since a collective body was perceived as better security. It has been observed that the temple authorities were not interested in the question of who possessed the asset; they wanted to be assured of the supply of ghee, oil and other commodities which would enable the daily services of the temple to continue uninterrupted.”
“Non-specific gifts of gold or money were lent out on interest by the temple. According to a tenth-century inscription, the temple of Tiruvorriyur, now a northern suburb of Chennai, invested a part of 60 kalanju gold which it had been gifted with the residents of a village near Ponneri, further north, at an interest of 15 per cent, payable every six months, including two meals for the man who went to collect the interest from the borrowers.19 Interest rates generally ranged between 12.5 and 15 per cent a year, but could vary between a low of 6.25 per cent and a high of 30 per cent a year. What factors governed the determination of interest rates? It is difficult to even hazard a guess as to whether this was due to local conditions which indicated increased risk or insufficient resources for credit, since donations and deposits were being made to temples throughout the entire region. An eleventh-century inscription gives a clear idea that there was an active functioning credit market. It refers to merchants from outside the locality and local merchants whose business was lending money on interest.20 Since the interest rate essentially represented the cost of capital, profits made on transactions using this capital had to be more than the interest rate for the activity to be viable.”
This allowed larger mercantile societies set up along the Chola Conquest across South East Asia and Sri Lanka. These integrated with the local Custom and Community while maintaining their Identity. This helped them to be so successful that they continued to exist in those lands even long after Cholas Fortune dimmed.
Nagarathar:
The Term Nagarathar was used in those times by the Assembly members of Nagaram. Unlike Ur or Sabhai, Nagaram Assemblies had Large representation by Merchants, however it was also had representation from Communities. During Later Chola TIme, Both Right and Left Hand Communities were also Part of this Nagaram. The Assembly also included Prominant Military and Government Offcial too. All of them thus had the title of Nagarathar, the Merchants Were identified in General with Chetty title. Even this was not Uniform. This Chetty Title had many Merchant Communities including the Itinerant Merchants and those who dealt with Textile yarn. It also spanned across Tamizhakam all the way upto what is part of Karnataka, Kerala and AP today.
Post Chola time, at Some point, both these Titles were now associated with a particular Caste. This Transformation is also characteristic and Symbolic of Hardening of Varna and Associated Caste system that began solidifying Post Bhakthi Movement.
By and Large the Book Talks about the Social Structure of Medieval Thamizhakam and its transformation. However, the details on Mercantile Guilds are only spoken about in the last quarter of the book. In a way that is not Justified with the expectations arising out of the Title. But then I also Noticed that a series of Such Books have been released on various subject with Gurcharan Das’s name -who gave introduction to all those books- more prominently displayed than the Authors of all those book. I am not sure if the issue of Tamil Merchant Guild getting lesser coverage is any way due to this.
The only place I have bit of a disagreement is in the Sweeping way she refers to Thirukkural and its religious identity by pointing to Dubious and Unclear origins of Thiruvalluvar rather than by the things Thirukkural is speaking. This gives a religious identity to that Text and the way she had placed that is inconsistent with the Caliber she has attempted.
“Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were written in this period,2 as was the Tirukkural, the great Tamil work on ethics. The Silappadikaram clearly reflects Jain influence, and the Manimekalai is deeply rooted in Buddhism. The Tirukkural does not disclose a religious bias but its author, Tiruvalluvar, is believed to have belonged to the Jain faith. In contrast to this period of ‘historical night’, in these centuries, north India was ruled by the Guptas who controlled a great and powerful empire.”
However, I think the Author in the end, Presents an interesting narrative that gives a wider understanding of the Social Phenomena behind those periods the book is covering.
Comments
Post a Comment